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3.4 Equation of State of the Energy Continuum

3.4.1 Non-Linearity in the Continuum

In his Autobiographical Notes, Einstein made a very pertinent observation; he pointed out that some physical states in the universe must be non-linear, otherwise quantum states could not exist. For example, molecules, atoms, neutrons and protons all have a definite quantum size, mass and charge; this could not be so if their underlying structure was linear and superposition of states was possible.

On the other hand, the processes which produce electromagnetic waves in the energy continuum seem to be linear since there are no quantum effects in wave motion; frequency, amplitude, energy density, all appear to vary continuously. This suggests strongly that photons are not waves but particles, and that the 'frequency' detected when a photon is destroyed is, as Newton noted, simply the 'undulations of the Aether'. In other words, the kinetic energy of the photon particles is released into the local continuum, at a wavelength, \(\lambda\), related to its size. The energy contained in one Photon is given as \(E=hc/\lambda\) - there are no half-photons.

It is clear that the structure of a photon depends on some kind of non-linear state that 'locks' its energy content into a small volume. The paradox of photon energy is that it is inversely proportional to its volume, that is, the smaller the wavelength the higher the energy content. This is the nature of the non-linearity at the heart of particles structures. However, before this non-linear relationship can be determined it is necessary to develop a deeper understanding of the nature of the energy continuum.

In this section, an equation of state of the energy continuum is proposed which relates energy density, curvature and expansion velocity. This equation is linear and hence it can be used to explain EM waves and other electromagnetic phenomena which is done in a later chapter of this book.

Though the equation of state is, itself, linear, it is at the limit of its linear range that the essential non-linearity is the energy continuum is to be found. This occurs in the central core of the primary particles, neutrons, protons, and electrons.

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